目錄

Table of Contents

1. A Typological Analysis of Chinese Heritage Language Programs at Universities in North America and Oceania by Karen Huang
   北美紐澳大學華裔中文傳承教育類型分析  黃克文

• 摘要
  With a growing number of Chinese immigrants around the world, more and more heritage language learners want to learn Chinese at universities in their settling country. It has been widely accepted that the heritage language learners should receive separate curricula because their needs are different from the Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) learners. However, programs do not always have enough resources to offer a separate instruction for the heritage language learners. There is a need to bridge the gap between theory and practice. This study examines 39 Chinese programs from the top 150 universities in Modern languages in North America and Oceania. Based on the data, a typology of the Chinese heritage language programs is presented. Further analyses illustrate that 77% of the investigated top universities offer heritage courses. However, there seems to be a regional difference between North America and Oceania. Furthermore, the complexity of heritage programs is correlated to Asian/Chinese demographics in the universities or the regions. The university structure and student demographics play an important role in program curricula. Based on these findings, further recommendations are proposed to assist a program to develop its heritage language track in a realistic manner.

隨著海外華人移民增加，愈來愈多華裔學生希望在當地大學學習中文。由於華裔學生學習需求與其他學生不同，分開設置華裔班獲得教育界廣泛認可，然而理想與實際之間差距不小，並非所有中文項目都有能力另外開班。本研究調查美加紐澳共三十九個、在現代外語領域世界排名前一百五十名的中文項目，根據其華裔教學課程做類型學分析。結果發現其中77%設有華裔班，其設置與否、課程完整度與地區及亞裔或華裔的比例相關，華裔班的開設顯然受大學學制與學生族群影響。本研究進而對期望發展其華裔課程的中文系，斟酌實際並提出建議。

2. 落地生根的胡姬花：新加坡華裔語言形態與身份認同解讀  吳英成、馮耀華
   One People, One Nation, One Singapore: Language Use and Identity among Chinese Singaporeans by Yeng Seng Goh, Yeow Wah Fong

• 摘要
  新加坡華人從祖籍地中國移居到「星洲」，積極融入居留地生活，成家立業，繁衍後代，入籍成為新加坡公民。經過新加坡建國五十年來積極推動的種族融合政策，不僅潛移默化地建構出有別於中國祖籍地的華人身份認同，新加坡華族社會語言生態也發生重大變化。不同世代、不同家庭常用語、不同教育背景的華裔，對華族語言文化認同以及對華人族群認同出現顯著差異。在全球化時代中，祖籍地中國人與世界各地的華人，應該尊重與接受華裔經過時空變遷後產生的異質事實。

Migrating from homeland in China to Singapore, Singapore Chinese put down roots, have a family and eventually become citizens in Singapore. The implementation of the racial integration policy in the past fifty years has not only forged a distinctive Chinese Singaporean identity, but also brought a major change in the sociolinguistic landscape. There is thus a significant variation in attitudes towards Chinese language and culture and ethnic Chinese identity across generational cohorts, due to different home language use and education background. It is essential, in the age of globalisation, for mainland Chinese and Chinese overseas to recognise and respect the fact that Chinese overseas has evolved a distinctive identity over time and space.

3. 泰國華裔青年之華語語音習得與偏誤分析  梁月美、劉惠美
   The Mandarin Pronunciation Acquisition and Error Analysis in Thai Chinese Youth by Kamolwan Noppadolsathan and Huei-Mei Liu

摘要
本研究目的在於分析泰國華裔學生在華語語音習得中的偏誤情形，包括習得聲母、聲調發音的偏誤比率和型態，了解泰籍華生在學習華語的語音困難點分布情形及產生偏誤的可能原因。本研究以在台灣學習華語之泰國華裔學生（簡稱泰籍華生）為對象，採單字詞的念讀方式，蒐集泰籍華生的華語聲母、聲調之語音樣本，並讓華語母語者以耳聽知覺的評音方式，判斷個別聲母、聲調的正確率，並加以排序分析其偏誤類型。研究結果顯示，在聲母方面，泰籍華生最常把送氣塞擦音發成擦音，例如ch/tʂ^h/發成sh/ʂ/、q/tɕ^h/發成x/ɕ/，舌尖後濁擦音r/ʐ/發成舌尖中邊音l/l/，舌尖後音發成舌尖前音，zh/tʂ/發成z/ts/，sh/ʂ/發音成s/s/，或者舌面音發成舌尖音，如x/ɕ/發成s/s/。在聲調方面，泰籍華生多數能準確發出華語的四個聲調，惟在陽平發音成去聲的偏誤率較高。期許透過本研究之發音偏誤類型分析、偏誤排序及對泰籍華生之語音教學建議，讓華語教師教授泰籍華生時，能提升其華語語音教學之成效。

The main purposes of this study are to analyze the error patterns and problems of Mandarin initial consonants and tones for Thai Chinese students, and to examine the possible effects Chinese background can impose on Thai Chinese students in the area of Mandarin pronunciation. The sample participants tested in this study are Thai Chinese students who study Mandarin in Taiwan. Single word reading method is used to collect the data of pronunciation of Mandarin initial consonants and tones from Thai Chinese students. Perceptual judgment technique is used to determine the correct rate of each Mandarin initials and tones and their error patterns. In addition, this study ranks the error type frequency on different Mandarin initials 0and tones, showing a more scientific frequency ranking on Thai Chinese pronunciation. The results show that in terms of consonant pronunciations, the main error patterns for Thai Chinese speakers are their pronunciation of affricative sound to be fricative sound, such as ch/tʂ^h/is pronounced as sh/ʂ/, q/tɕ^h/is pronounced as x/ɕ/, Also, their pronunciation of retroflex sound to pronounce as alveolar sound, such as r/ʐ/ is pronounced as l/l/; retroflex sound to pronounce as alveolar sound, such as zh/tʂ/ is pronounced as z/ts/, sh/ʂ/is pronounced as s/s/; or alveolo-palatal sound to be pronounced as alveolar sound, such as x/ɕ/to pronounced as s/s/. In terms of tones, most Thai Chinese students can accurately pronounce the four Mandarin tones; however there is the slightly higher rate of error in the second tone to be pronounced as fourth tone. Based on this error type analysis and error type ranking, it is hoped that Mandarin teachers will be able to improve the effectiveness of Chinese phonetics teaching when interacting with Thai students with Chinese background.

4. Home Language Environment, Socioeconomic Status and Chinese Oral Competence in Singaporean Chinese Children Aged 6 by Lynn Dee Puah and Chee Lay Tan
   新加坡六歲華族兒童的家庭語言環境、社會經濟地位與華語口語能力  潘霖妮、陳志銳

• 摘要
  In Singapore, the use of English at home was generally more prevalent among Chinese community with higher socioeconomic status (SES). In this paper, we aim to investigate the current home language environment of Singapore Chinese children, and to find out the relationships between home language, SES, and Chinese oral competence in Singaporean Chinese children. 1233 parents of Singapore Chinese children aged 6 from 73 preschools participated in the questionnaire survey, and 377 Singapore Chinese children aged 6 participated in the language proficiency test. The results showed that Singapore Chinese children aged 6 used more English at home. SES had direct influence on home language exposure. Home language exposure had direct influence on Chinese oral competence. SES had no direct influence on Chinese oral competence. The results suggest that the promotion of Chinese as the main home language is important and imminent. More investigations on home language and school language are needed for policy making.

在新加坡，社會經濟地位較高的華族社群，在家庭中使用英語的現象較為普遍。本研究旨在調查目前新加坡華族兒童的家庭語言環境，以及探討新加坡華族兒童家庭語言環境、社會經濟地位和口語能力之間的關係。本研究的參與者包括來自73所學前中心的6歲華族兒童及他們的家長。其中，1233名家長參與了問卷調查，377名兒童參加了口語能力測試。研究發現，新加坡6歲華族兒童在家多使用英語；社會經濟地位對家庭語言接觸具有預測力；家庭語言接觸對口語能力具有預測力。由此，我們認為鼓勵新加坡華族家庭在家中使用華語是重要且迫切的。為了更好地制定政策，日後需要更多關於家庭語言及學校語言的調查。

5. 華語道歉策略的差別效應研究  張玉芳
   A Study on The Single and Joint Effects of Apology Component by Yuh-Fang Chang

• 摘要
  現有探討言談行為「道歉」的相關研究不少，但多數學者聚焦於特定語言表達道歉的策略種類，或比較探討不同語言間表達道歉的策略差異。雖然這部分的研究發現，能幫助我們了解跨文化之間表達道歉策略的差異，但要清楚了解「道歉」言談行為，除了需要知道「表達道歉者」使用什麼策略道歉之外，也應探究每一類的道歉策略、或不同的道歉策略組合，所傳達的道歉誠意，對於「接受道歉者」而言，是否有差異。然而，現有探討道歉語的相關研究，多數是收集表達資料（production data），分析道歉策略的使用差異；或收集認知資料（perception data）針對道歉情境冒犯的嚴重程度、需要道歉的必要性、被冒犯者會接受道歉的可能性等認知差異做比較，都是從「表達道歉者」的角度探討「道歉」的言談行為。少有學者從「被冒犯者」（亦即：接受道歉者）的角度，探討每一類的道歉策略或不同的道歉策略組合，所傳達的道歉誠意，對於「接受道歉者」而言，是否有差異。本研究從「被冒犯者」的角度，探討每一類的道歉策略、不同道歉策略組合以及同一種道歉策略但不同的內容等，它們所傳達的道歉誠意的是否有別，並研究其認知是否有性別的差異。

People apologize differently. The apology strategies that previous studies classified include: (1) IFID expressing regret, (2) IFID requesting forgiveness, (3) intensifier, (4) repair, (5) explanation, (6) lack of intent, (7) self-blame, (8) admission of fact, (9) promise of forbearance, (10) acknowledgement, (11) concern, (12) minimizing, (13) alerter, (14) justification. Most of the research literature on the speech act of apology collected production data to examine the speech act of apology of a specific culture or compared the speech act of apology across cultural groups. The issue concerning whether and how different types of apology strategy work differently in changing the perception of transgressors has attracted relatively little attention from researchers. This study is intended to contribute to the body of research on pragmatics by examining the single and joint effects of apology components on the victim’s perception of transgressors.

目錄

Table of Contents

1. 二語學習者與母語者穿戴類動詞的心理詞彙網絡之組織研究  錢旭菁
   A comparison study on the mental lexicon of native Chinese speakers and English learners of Chinese by Xujing Qian

• 摘要
  人腦中的詞語是一個有組織的系統，這個系統一般被稱為心理詞彙。由一個詞聯想到另一個詞，反映了心理詞彙中詞語之間的聯繫。聯想實驗是一個研究人腦中心理詞彙的組織方式的常用方法。本文以詞語聯想的方法，考察母語為英語的漢語初級、中級、高級二語學習者心理詞彙中「穿、戴、脫、披」這四個動詞的組織方式與漢語母語者的異同。通過分析聯想詞和刺激詞之間的各種關係，本研究發現，二語學習者心理詞彙中的詞語網絡比母語者的稀疏，表現出他們詞語網絡中的詞語比漢語母語者少，詞與詞之間的聯繫不如漢語母語者的緊密。二語學習者心理詞彙中穿戴類四個動詞之間尚未建立任何語義方面的聯繫，這些動詞的組合聯繫的強度也比母語者弱。此外，二語學習者心理詞彙中的非語義聯繫比母語者多。二語學習者心理詞彙中意義無關的同音詞以及聲符相近的詞聯繫在一起不利於他們對這些詞的識別和提取。從詞義方面來說，二語者的心理詞彙中只涉及這四個動詞「穿脫衣物」這一最基本的義項，而漢語母語者心理詞彙包括這幾個動詞的多個義項。根據上述研究結果，本文從教學內容和教學順序兩方面對穿戴類動詞的教學提出了具體的建議。

The lexicon in human’s mind is an organized system which is called Mental Lexicon. Word association which reflects the relations of words is a common research method to study the organization of Mental Lexicon. Based on word association, we compare the organization of four action verbs related to Wearing in the Mental Lexicon between elementary to higher-level English speaking learners of Chinese and native Chinese. The four verbs were chuan (to wear clothes), dai (to wear glasses, hat, gloves, caps, etc.), tuo (to take off clothes, shoes, gloves, etc.) and pi (to drape over). Analyzing the relations between the response and the stimulus, we found that the word net connections of the learners were much sparse than those of the natives. The number of words in the net of learners was less than that of natives while their non-semantic relations were more than those of the natives. Concerning the meanings of the four verbs, the Mental Lexicon of learners only indicates the meaning of ＂put on/take off clothes＂, while the Mental Lexicon of natives Chinese shows several senses of these verbs. Suggestions of teaching contents and teaching sequences of these four verbs are proposed in this writing.

2. 文類教學法在中文二語實用文教學的運用  邱佳琪
   Application of genre pedagogy in Chinese second language teaching and learning of practical writing by Cha Kie Hiew

• 摘要
  在常用文類的教學中，二語學生需要學習如何理解並回應各種溝通管道的信息，以滿足生活中的社交需求，達到語言的溝通目標。實用文是一種常用的交換信息文類，因此是二語教學的重要文類。二語學習者除了掌握文類結構的概念，更需要對於不同情境下適用的內容及語言形式有所了解，以便準確、恰當地溝通或分享信息，而這些學習需求與交際目的及語境等因素是息息相關的。因此本文從系統功能語言學（Halliday 1994）的角度分析20 位中文第二語言學習者所寫的建議書，發現其中表現較弱的部分包括文步、語旨、語式、詞彙、情態、連接、指稱等等。此外也進一步通過「閱讀促進寫作」（Reading to Learn, Learning to Write）文類教學法進行教學設計，以針對中文二語的實用文寫作弱項，提出具體的建議與改善方法。「閱讀促進寫作」教學法結合系統功能語言學與支架教學的概念，形成從閱讀到寫作的完整教學設計。一方面，系統功能語言學提供了關於語言、文類、語境的系統性知識，有助於學習者掌握不同文類的結構與語言特點並應用於寫作；另一方面，此教學法在近年來經過不斷的實踐與完善，已證實能有效地提升學生的語文能力。相較於一般常見從內容、結構、語言等層面的寫作分析，本研究從系統功能語言學的角度，進一步細化寫作評量的標準與層面，從學習者寫作的真實語料分析其弱項，並採取具體的教學策略，使教學設計能有針對性地符合學生的學習需求。

Practical text or practical writing is the genre which carries messages to exchange information between sender and receiver. It’s important to learn how to interpret various information received in daily life and to respond appropriately for the social interaction purpose. And second language learners not only need to understand the concept of different genre, but also need to possess the knowledge about context and linguistic features of various texts to communicate well with others. Therefore this paper analyzes the practical writing of 20 CSL (Chinese as a second language) students and concludes their performance is generally weak especially in terms of stages, tenor, mode, ideation, appraisal, conjunction, and reference. Based on the analysis of CSL students’ authentic materials, this paper further applies the 「Reading to Learn, Learning to Write」pedagogy to design the teaching of practical writing with the concepts of genre, context, and language. Developed from the theory of Systemic Functional Linguistic, Reading to Learn pedagogy has been recognized as one of the most effective and well-designed genre study from theoretical and pedagogical aspects. The significance of this paper is to understand the performance and learning needs of CSL students, and to develop effective teaching design which can help to enhance the teaching and learning of Chinese practical writing.

3. CEFR與ACTFL初級閱讀能力描述對應研究：以「兒童華語文能力測驗」為媒介  趙家璧、藍珮君、陳柏熹
   Aligning ACTFL and CEFR proficiency levels: utilizing children’s Chinese competency certification by Chia-Pi Chao, Pei-Jiun Lan, and Po-Hsi Chen

• 摘要
  本研究採用國家華語測驗推動工作委員會參照CEFR 初級使用者（A 等）能力指標所研發的兒童華語文閱讀測驗為媒介，透過書籤法（Bookmark Method）標準設定程序，連結歐洲共同語文參考架構（CEFR）與美國外語教學協會能力指標（ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines）的初級閱讀能力，期能分析 CEFR 與ACTFL 初級閱讀能力描述的對應關係。本研究邀集11 位專家採用書籤法進行兩回合的標準設定研究，使用兒童華語文閱讀測驗題目，對ACTFL 初級與中級的能力描述進行標準設定。研究結果顯示：1. 低於CEFR A1 以下的Pre-A1 級約與ACTFL 初級初等、初級中等相當，而A1 級與初級高等、中級初等相當，至於A2 級則與中級中等、中級高等相當；2. 在標準設定結果的效度驗證方面，本研究提出程序性效度與內部效度兩項資料；3. 在定義初級閱讀能力時，CEFR 與ACTFL 有數項共同特徵和共通的學習進程。本研究結果有助於兒童測驗使用者透過CEFR 與ACTFL 的語言能力架構理解測驗結果，同時也提供華語文教學上有關CEFR 與ACTFL 對應的客觀依據。

ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines (ACTFL) and Common European Framework of Reference for Language (CEFR) are two major language proficiency guidelines adopted internationally in the fields of language teaching and assessment. This study aims to link the framework of CEFR and ACTFL by utilizing the Children’s Chinese Competency Certification (CCCC). 11 experts have participated in a two-round standard setting procedure applying the Bookmark Method. The CCCC Reading is a standardized test designed based on the CEFR proficiency descriptions for Basic User (A1-A2). The standard setting procedure was performed on the CCCC Reading focus on ACTFL novice and intermediate levels. The research suggests the following results. First, the pre-A1 reading proficiency which is lower than CEFR A1 is equivalent to the novice low and novice mid levels in ACTFL. The CEFR A1 reading proficiency is equivalent to ACTFL novice high and intermediate low levels and the CEFR A2 is equivalent to ACTFL intermediate mid and intermediate high levels. Second, the evidence of procedural validity and internal validity are provided to support the validation of the standard setting. Finally, in describing reading proficiency and learning progress in the beginner levels, the process of standard setting has revealed similar characteristics in both the CEFR and the ACTFL framework. The results of this study allow the test takers of CCCC to interpret test results with the language proficiency framework which they are familiar with. It can also provide language learners and educators with a more objective correspondence between CEFR and ACTFL.

4. 華語教材評估指標初探：二語習得視角  李郁錦、 陳振宇
   A preliminary investigation of the criteria for evaluating Chinese teaching materials: a second language acquisition perspective by Yu-Chin Li and Jenn-Yeu Chen

• 摘要
  本文從二語習得理論的視角出發，根據教材編撰的相關理論，提出一套華語教材研析的指標，期能做為華語教學設計或研析的參考。有關二語習得的主要因素和要件，雖學界仍無定論，但因其無論在外語教學或教材設計都有著至關重要的影響力。因此本文搜羅國內外與二語習得及教材編撰相關的書籍及論文共117 本/篇做為擬定指標的基礎。本研究首先彙整國內、外二語習得及教材設計的觀點，做綜合性的討論。其次，從中萃取出一套教材評析模式，此模式分：「語言」、「認知」、「教學」與「學習者」等四個層面，有17 項指標、80 項細目的教材評析工具之原型。此評析工具，除了可檢視二語習得相關理論的應用之外，也可以做為教材設計的參考指標，有助於將二語理論實際應用於教學及教材設計上。

Primarily based on theoretical views of second language acquisition (SLA), this article aims to design a prototype of indicators for Chinese teaching materials analysis from a pedagogical perspective. To this end, first of all, we briefly discussed what SLA theories can contribute to the teaching of Chinese as a second language. Secondly, we compiled and discussed the most relevant SLA and Materials Development in Language Teaching bibliography in the last few decades. At each point, based on the discussed theories, we attempted to extract indicators for the purpose of analyzing Chinese teaching materials. Eventually, we designed a prototype tool with 4 different levels: (1) Language, (2) Cognition, (3) Teaching Approach, and (4) Students which include 17 indicators, a total of 80 items. It could be used as a reference for analyzing materials as well as for designing them.

5. A multilevel analysis of the linguistic features affecting Chinese text readability by Jia-Fei Hong, Yao-Ting Sung, Ho-Chiang Tseng, Kuo-En Chang, and Ju-Ling Chen
   影響中文文本閱讀難易度的多層次語言特徵分析  洪嘉馡、宋曜廷、曾厚強、 張國恩、陳茹玲

• 摘要
  The purpose of the present study is to investigate the characteristics of text comprehension. We use an approach that includes 32 linguistic features from four main levels (word, semantic, syntactic, and cohesive) that relate to Chinese text readability. The aim is to overcome the restrictions that resulted from adopting only surface linguistic features in investigating text readability in the past. In the present study, the research materials include 386 texts from Chinese textbooks for Taiwan elementary school students in six grades. The texts are reasonably assumed to increase in complexity of readability from grade 1 to grade 6. The readability of each of the 32 features is derived from the statistical trend analysis with respect to the grades. It is hoped that the results of this study can be of significant use in teaching Chinese reading in Chinese as a second language.

本文研究文本理解的特性，論述採用詞彙類、語意類、句法類和文章凝聚性四個主要層次的32 個語言特徵，以探討中文文本閱讀難易度，克服前人僅採用一些表面語言特徵的限制。研究的實驗材料取自臺灣三個版本的小學一年級到六年級的課本共386 篇文本，從低年級到高年級的課文當作是文本從簡易到相對繁難的安排，這32 個語言特性的閱讀難易度以統計學的趨向分析依文本在年級的高低分布計算出來。過去華語為二語的文本分析大都採用學生偏誤的語料，本研究則以正規的文本為依據，做出中文文本閱讀難易度，希望研究成果能對華語為二語教學有所貢獻。

目錄

Table of Contents

1. 四部對外漢語大綱中語法等級項目分布研究  李培毓、楊志盛
   Analysis of Graded Chinese Grammatical Items Distribution within 4 TCSL Syllabuses by Pei-Yu Li and Zhi-Sheng Yang

• 摘要
  本文選取四部內含語法項目的對外漢語大綱（即《漢語水平等級標準與語法等級大綱》、《高等學校外國留學生漢語言專業教學大綱》、《高等學校外國留學生漢語教學大綱（長期進修）》和《國際漢語教學通用課程大綱》）進行比較。先是針對大綱的基本情况，即適用對象、主要用途、相互關係做一整理，重新檢視四部大綱整體框架的對應關係；接著從等級的劃分到等級的數量再到等級的項目來比較分析，統計四部大綱在不同等級的數量多寡，歸納四部大綱共有和獨有的語法等級項目，最後呈現並解釋這樣的分布現象。

In this paper we compare grammatical items included in four syllabuses published in China for teaching Chinese as a second language. The four syllabuses are the Chinese Proficiency Scales and Graded Grammar Syllabus, Syllabus for Undergraduate Foreign Students of Chinese Language in Higher Education, Syllabus for Foreign Students in Higher Education (Long Term Chinese Program), and International Curriculum for Chinese Education. First, we list all the basic information, including scopes, applications, and interrelations. Then we evaluate and readjust these items as we compare them across the syllabuses. Second, investigating the diverse perspectives and statistics, we analyze their grading criteria, proficiency scales, as well as regulated items listed in various levels, and form a common list of grammatical items. In the final part we provide a reasonable account of item distribution.

2. 臺灣學生與馬來西亞僑生於請求與拒絕行為之道歉語分析  陳梅影
   A Comparison of Apologetic Expressions in Requests and Refusals between Taiwanese Students and Malaysian Chinese Students by Mei-Ying Chen

• 摘要
  本研究比較在臺灣之馬來西亞華裔學生（簡稱馬籍僑生）和臺灣學生於請求和拒絕兩種非道歉行為之道歉語選擇，以及社會地位對兩組學生使用道歉語的影響。研究發現臺灣學生與馬籍僑生道歉語的使用，依不同言語行為及聽話者社會地位，具有共通性。首先以道歉語類型來看，兩組學生無論於請求或拒絕行為，皆偏好「不好意思」，頻率皆最高。兩種言語行為相較，兩組學生於拒絕行為使用「不好意思」的頻率皆高於請求行為。此外，隨著交際對象之社會地位越高，道歉語的使用越頻繁，其中仍以「不好意思」最為活躍。可見「不好意思」具普遍適用性，較「對不起」受歡迎。換言之，本研究發現兩組學生雖來自不同的華語社區，道歉語的選擇明顯相似，皆傾向使用「不好意思」。最後，以道歉語總使用頻率來看，臺灣學生較馬籍僑生更容易使用道歉語，「不好意思」的使用也高於馬籍僑生。

This study investigated the selection of apologetic expressions between Taiwanese students and Malaysian Chinese students. An open-ended discourse completion test (DCT) was employed to collect both groups’ selection of apologetic expressions used in requests and refusals. The results showed that depending on the nature of speech acts and the listener’s social status, Taiwanese students and Malaysian Chinese students shared more similarities than differences in terms of the use of apology expressions. Of the four identified apologetic expressions, Bù hǎo yìsi (Excuse me) was the most used and followed by duì bù qǐ (I’m sorry) by both groups, indicating that Bù hǎo yìsi enjoyed more popularity than its counterpart duì bù qǐ did both in the speech act of the request and speech act of refusal. However, the uses of apologetic expression by both groups were more frequent in refusals than in requests. In addition, the higher the listener’s social status, the higher rate of occurrence of apologetic expressions. It was observed that both groups employed more apology expressions while in the situation of requesting or rejecting higher status, but not in the equal-status or lower-status situations. Finally, regarding the total number of occurrences, Taiwanese students employed more apologetic expressions than Malaysian Chinese students. Although both groups preferred Bù hǎo yìsi, it was observed that Taiwanese students selected more Bù hǎo yìsi than Malaysian Chinese students did.

3. 體驗式教學法於初級商務華語教學中的應用  李欣欣
   Application of Experiential Learning Model in Fundamental Business Chinese Teaching by Cindy Hsin-Hsin Lee

• 摘要
  本文係探討在初級商務華語教學中，採取體驗式教學法的教學過程與結果。體驗式教學法是緊密相連課堂內外各項學習活動，讓學生能實際運用、體驗專業知識、語言和技能的一種教學方式。本文透過行動研究法發現，在以聽說為主的初級商務華語課程中導入體驗式教學法可提升學習動機、活化傳統教學法、促進教材創意和跨文化認知，以及提升學生語用能力及學習成就感。但執行實務體驗教學活動，亦需有行政方面的配合，以降低執行時可能會產生的阻力。本案例的經驗也發現，確實執行體驗式教學法的三階段教學步驟，循序漸進地引導學生熟悉商業交易流程中所需的語言項目，可增強學生的語言信心和溝通能力，進而達到所設定的教學目標。最後本文針對商務華語教程提出建議，並歸結出實務體驗式教學進程，期能豐富商務華語教學法內涵。

Experiential learning connects students’ learning activities in class and their experience outside the class, allowing them to apply their professional knowledge, language and skills in real life. This study is an action research in which the instructor introduced experiential learning method and found that it could enhance students’ learning motivation, stimulate traditional teaching method and creativity in using the teaching material. In addition, it can increase students’ intercultural competence, communication ability and the sense of achievement in learning. Nevertheless, proper administration is crucial to avoid obstacles when implementing this teaching method. Following a three-stage procedure, which leads students to familiarize with the business language in stride, can improve students’ linguistic and communication competence so as to achieve the target teaching objectives. Finally, recommendations on fundamental business Chinese teaching method and curriculum are offered.

4. 德國中文教學概況——海外視角下的師資培育  林欽惠
   Chinese language teaching in Germany: Looking at pre-service Chinese language teacher education from outside Taiwan by Chin-Hui Lin

• 摘要
  目前國內關於華語文師資培育的研究多集中於教學理念、專業能力、課程模式等方面，從教師自身角度探討海外實習的研究相對較少，且多集中於亞洲地區。本文擬針對臺灣教師的海外實習情況提供另一種視角，對此一群體在德國大學教學時所遭遇的困難進行初步探索與分析。首先，本文將針對目前德國中小學以及大學的中文教學概況與師資組成情況進行介紹，接著就一項針對20位赴德國六所大學中文系／漢學系任教之臺灣實習教師的調查進行探討。根據調查結果，筆者建議未來臺灣的華語師資培育應加強跨文化交際能力、外語教學能力以及對中國的理解三方面的訓練。

Most previous studies on pre-service Chinese language teacher education in Taiwan focus on local training. They mostly discuss preservice teachers’ teaching belief, the development of professional skills, training program curriculum design, etc. In contrast, this study aims to provide a different perspective on pre-service Chinese language teacher education by exploring the actual working situation of pre-service Chinese teachers at German universities. In the first part, a general overview on Chinese language teaching in Germany will be offered. In the second part, we will explore the working situation of pre-service Chinese language teachers on the basis of a survey on 20 Taiwanese pre-service Chinese language teachers who did their internship at six German universities. The findings of this study suggest that three issues that have arguably received insufficient attention in discussions on pre-service teacher training in Taiwan: (1) the importance of intercultural communicative competence, (2) competences in using a foreign classroom language, (3) understanding of Mainland China (society, history, language use, etc.). These issues should receive more attention in Chinese language teacher training programs in Taiwan.

5. L2 Acquisition of the Mandarin Modal Verb YAO by L1 English Speakers by Jen-I Li and Miao-Ling Hsieh
   英語母語者習得漢語能願動詞「要」之研究  李臻儀、謝妙玲

• 摘要
  本研究檢視了漢語能願動詞「要」的語意特性，並分析了中央研究院平衡語料庫及一以線上寫作測驗方式收集語料所建構的中介語語料庫，以探討英語為母語之學習者習得「要」的情形。「要」的用法根據它的情態意義可分為三種類型：認知情態、參與者內部情態及參與者外部情態。本研究主要發現有二：（a）表參與者內部情態的「要」最常出現於二語語料中，其次為表參與者外部情態的「要」，使用頻率最低的為認知情態的「要」；此二語習得過程與一語習得過程及語法化的過程相符合。（b）表參與者內部情態的「要」之使用率隨著學習者的能力增加而降低，而表參與者外部情態的「要」之使用率則隨著學習者的能力增加而升高。本研究進一步將「要」的偏誤分為四種類型：遺漏、誤加、取代、錯序，並以分析結果為據提出教學上的啟示，結果顯示在教學實務上，母語對學習者的影響需加以注意，而學習者本身漢語知識的不足也會導致偏誤的發生。希冀本研究的發現及偏誤分析可以對以漢語為第二語言或外語的教學有所貢獻。

This paper examines the meanings of the modal verb yào in Mandarin Chinese as well as the acquisition of yào by L2 adult learners whose L1 was English, using data from the Academia Sinica corpus and a learner corpus. The modal meanings of yào were categorized into three types–epistemic, participant-internal, and participant-external. Major findings were: (a) the participant-internal yào was the most frequently used in the L2 data, followed by the participant-external yào and then the epistemic yào, which is consistent with the process of L1 acquisition and grammaticalization; (b) the rate of use of participant-internal yào decreased with the learners’ proficiency level while that of participant-external yào increased with proficiency level. Four types of errors, omission, addition, mis-selection and misordering, were analyzed. The analysis reveals that both the learners’ L1 and their having inadequate knowledge of Mandarin had important effect on their learning Mandarin as a second or foreign language.

目錄

Table of Contents

1. 漢語「在」處所片語詞序在日文與韓文的對應  戴浩一
   Pre-verbal and Post-verbal Chinese Locative zai Phrases with Reference to Their Correspondences in Japanese and Korean by James H.-Y. Tai

• 摘要
  漢語「在」處所片語置於動詞之前或之後的規則建立在一個有認知基礎的語意區分。在動詞之前的語意是指涉事件發生的地點；在動詞之後的語意上是指涉人或物的地點，特別是動作結果的地點。這個區別也呈現在日文格助詞で（DE）與に（NI）的對照以及韓文에서（esΛ）與에（e）的對照。這種簡明的區分有助於日本、韓國學生，以及其他國家學習者對漢語「在」處所片語詞序的學習。

The placement of Chinese zai locative phrases before or after the main verb is based on a cognition-based semantic distinction between the location of an event and the location of an entity, especially as a result of the action. This distinction is also exhibited as de/ni distinction in Japanese, and as esΛ/e in Korean. The distinction is therefore useful in teaching the word order of Chinese zai locative phrases to Japanese students, Korean students, and students from other countries.

2. 現代漢語情態副詞的語用分析──以語料庫中的「其實」一詞論述  張莉萍
   The Usages of Epistemic Adverbs Based on Corpora: Exemplified by Li-Ping Chang

• 摘要
  現代漢語情態副詞「其實」在對外漢語教材中的語義說明通常是以英語“actually, in fact, as a matter of fact”表示，一般把它當詞條處理，不多做說明或練習。然而只靠翻譯，對其他與之意義相近的副詞，如「事實上、實在、真的」的使用，學習者很容易產生混用。本研究先透過書面語、口語語料庫檢視「其實」在真實語料中的用法，藉著詞和詞之間橫向關係與上下文之間的縱向關係，提出「其實」的語義與語用分析，並以同樣方法分析幾個相近語義副詞的異同。本研究建議在教材中對這類副詞除了翻譯其語義外，也要有清楚的語用指引，以提高學習者對此類副詞的學習意識進而避免偏誤。

The epistemic adverbs like qishi ‘in fact’ in L2 Chinese textbooks are traditionally only listed as lexical items and translated as ‘actually, in fact, as a matter of fact’. However, they often caused learners’ confusion in usage of the near synonyms such as shishishang, shizai, and zhende. This study utilizes the syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations of the epistemic adverbs through oral as well as written corpora to analyze the semantic and pragmatic functions. It shows that there are two meanings for qishi. One use of it is to point out the fact. The other is to express something contrary to what is expected. In order to raise learners’ consciousness and to avoid errors, this study suggests in addition to the translation of lexical items, the pragmatic function of epistemic adverbs be listed in the textbook and practiced in instruction.

3. 兩岸學者共同開發成語與典故知識庫的記憶  俞士汶、朱學鋒
   Building the Idiom and Allusion Knowledge Base–Memories of the Joint Efforts by Scholars on Both Sides of the Taiwan Strait by Shi-Wen Yuand Xue-Feng Zhu

• 摘要
  本文介紹臺灣學者羅鳳珠教授主持的國際合作研究計畫「歷代語言知識庫建置」的概貌。主持這個計畫，羅老師演奏了華彩生命的最後樂章。「漢語成語與典故知識庫」是該計畫取得的成果之一，其研製基礎是北京大學計算語言所研製的「漢語成語知識庫」和羅老師建置的「詩詞曲典故資料庫」。本文介紹連接這兩個知識庫以建置「漢語成語與典故知識庫」的技術路線、內容以及應用於成語教學的展示平臺（http://cls.hs.yzu.edu.tw/DLKB/Idiom_Index.aspx）。我們與羅老師在計算語言學與中國古典文學交叉領域的合作已歷時20餘年。在合作中，我們深切地感受到羅老師的博學、勤奮、嚴謹、善良、開朗、堅毅，羅老師的精神及其留下的豐碩研究成果永遠活在我們的心中。

This paper introduces the outline of an international research project – Building a Diachronic Language Knowledge-Base, which was directed by Prof. Fengju Lo of Yuan Ze University in Taiwan and was also the swan song of Prof. Lo’s colorful life. The Chinese Idiom- Allusion Knowledge Base is one of the achievements of this project. It is based on the Chinese Idiom Knowledge Base developed by the Institute of Computational Linguistics at Peking University and the Allusions Knowledge Base by Prof. Lo. In this paper, we introduce the technical guidelines on connecting the above two knowledge bases to build the Chinese Idiom-Allusion Knowledge Base, its content and its application to idiom teaching on a platform (http://cls.hs.yzu.edu.tw/DLKB/Idiom_Index.aspx). For more than twenty years, we have been working with Prof. Lo in an interdisciplinary field of computational linguistics and Chinese classical literature. Being our longtime and close collaborator, Prof. Lo impressed us deeply with her erudition, diligence, rigorousness, kindness, cheerfulness and perseverance, which, together with her fruitful research achievements, will stay with us forever and ever.

4. 教學為導向的漢語多義動詞辨析──以「開」為例  歐德芬
   An Instruction-oriented Analysis of Chinese Polysemous Verbs–A Case Study of kai by Te-Fen Ou

• 摘要
  漢語動詞存在許多多義詞。就教學的角度而言，漢語中兼具高詞頻與多義項的動詞實為華語教學的重點。由於漢語多義詞義項確認不易，而且不同詞類有不同的句法特徵，其多義詞義項區辨的方式或不相同。本文基於華語詞彙語義教學的目的，辨析高詞頻兼多義項動詞的獨立義項並提出教學建議，因而以原則性多義理論（Principled Polysemy）結合次義項理論（Sub-sense Units）為多義動詞義項分析平臺，亦即結合動詞語義和句法或搭配共現等特徵，來定義多義動詞的獨立義項，以期於教學現場得以應用。本研究從詞頻統計、辭典語義與華語教材等三個面向進行高詞頻兼高義項動詞的篩選，同時以符合篩選機制的動詞「開」，進行多義動詞獨立義項分析，最後應用教學語法理論設計階段性的教學步驟，提出多義詞不同義項的教學順序，供華語教材編寫及課堂教學參考。

Many Chinese verbs are polysemy. From the perspective of pedagogy, high-frequency and polysemous verbs should be the focus of Chinese instruction. However, the identification of the senses of Chinese polysemy is extremely complicated, since the methods of distinguishing the senses of each polysemy are not necessarily the same. This paper, for the purpose of teaching the meaning of Chinese vocabulary, intends to differentiate between the individual senses and pedagogical application of high-frequency and polysemous verbs with an analysis platform constructed by Principled Polysemy (Evans 2005) and Sub-sense Units (Croft and Cruse 2004). For the application of curricula, the study combines features, such as verb senses, syntax or collocations, to define the individual senses of polysemous verbs. Furthermore, this paper attempts to screen out high-frequency verbs and polysemous verbs with frequency statistics, dictionary meanings and Chinese teaching materials. In addition, the study analyzes the individual senses of polysemous verbs with the verb kai that satisfies the screening mechanism. Finally, the author applies the theories of pedagogical grammar of Chinese and proposes the orders and procedures to teach a variety of senses of polysemous verb kai for Chinese teaching materials and curriculum pedagogy.

5. Linking Motivation in Learning Chinese with National Standards for Foreign Language Learning by Heng-Hua Su
   華語學習動因與外語教學標準之關聯探討 蘇珩驊

• 摘要
  本文旨在探索華語學習者選修華語為第二外語的動因構成。研究對象為美國中西部某大型公立大學華語項目不同年級的學生。結合前人的研究，本文作者設計了調查問卷並創建了首個調查華語學習動因構成的綜合模型，對不同年級的學習者進行了比較，並探討了學習者的學習動因與美國外語教師協會所提出的外語學習標準之間的連結。基於研究所得，作者在文末對華語教師提出了有針對性地改進課程設置和調整教學方法的建議。

This study presents preliminary findings on various constructs of motivation in students studying Chinese at various levels in a large scale Chinese program at a Midwest university in the United States. An innovative combinational model consisting of key factors in the motivation construct is proposed to facilitate determining whether the goals put forth in the National Standards align with the motivation constructs that students have for the language learning. Similarities and differences across levels were also examined. Based on the results found, suggestions are made to assist Chinese program directors and instructors to develop their curriculum and implement effective pedagogical methods.

目錄

Table of Contents

1. 二語學習者仿寫對偶修辭格對其漢語作文影響分析  吳雙
   Effects of CS/FL Learners’ Imitating Chinese Antithesis Figure of Speech in their Writing by Shuang Wu

• 摘要
  中國傳統和普遍的修辭形式對偶修辭格對於二語學習者而言，蘊含著強大的語言習得和生成功能，有助於二語學習者快速習得漢語字詞文句，而且在漢語作為第二語言教學的歷史上，對偶早就作為一種重要教學手段在國外長期應用，這是由於它有利於學習者有機構建和擴展漢語詞彙網路，說明學習者瞭解和掌握漢語短語的基本構造，從而能快速掌握漢語字詞並學會造句。為了瞭解二語學習者學習對偶修辭格的成效，我們設計了實驗，探索二語寫作教學過程中對偶修辭格的輸入對學習者漢語寫作品質的影響。實驗結果顯示，留學生仿寫的對偶句特點是，出現很多仿「蜂歌樹裡，蝶舞花前」的四字工對，很多不那麼嚴格的寬對，不少流水對，很多標準的「可字句」，一些抄寫或引用的對偶句，還有對偶句仿寫出現諸多偏誤。通過留學生在做完仿寫練習後寫出的作文，我們發現出現了對偶句，也出現了排比句和準排比句，還出現了不少書面語感濃郁的語句。通過對仿寫對偶修辭格過程的原理分析，對偶句仿寫產出過程可以分為構造階段、轉換階段、執行階段，體現出「話語的接受—話語的建構—話語的輸出」這一資訊加工處理流程的特點。最後，筆者建議教材及教學中可增設有意識的增字類仿寫練習，通過對漢語字詞句意與形式的習得，提高產出能力，並提高其用詞的準確性、語句的複雜性、流利性和地道性。

Antithesis figure of speech is the most traditional and common Chinese rhetorical device. Due to its productive generalization, it might help CS/FL (Chinese as a Second/Foreign Language) learners quickly acquire Chinese words, phrases and sentences. In the history of teaching CS/FL, antithesis figure of speech has been used for quite a long time in pedagogy, for it can facilitate learners’ constructing and enlarging semantic networks of vocabulary by mastering the internal structures of words, phrases and sentences. For the purpose of evaluating the learning effects of Chinese antithesis figure of speech, we conducted an experiment to investigate CSL learners’ production of antithesis couplets. Results show that through the treatment of teaching antithesis couplets as templates by asking the participants to imitate them, their writings had the following characteristics: (1) fourcharacter couplets such as feng ge shuli, die wu huaqian ‘Bees sing songs among trees and butterflies dance around flowers’, (2) not strict antithesis/duel couplets, (3) ke construction, and (4) errors in antithesis couplets. After the teaching treatment, in the learners’ compositions often appeared antithesis, parallel and quasi-parallel sentences. Based on the results, we argue that the production of antithesis couplets consists of perception, construction and output stages in information processing procedure. We also suggest that in order to increase CS/FL learners’ accuracy in using words, complexity in making sentences, and fluency and native-likeness in forming texts, teachers can raise their awareness of analyzing the meanings and forms of Chinese words by providing practices in imitation of antithesis couplets.

2. 基於新加坡小學華文教材語料庫的語音負擔分析  羅慶銘
   Phonological Functional Load in Singapore Primary School Textbooks: A Corpus-based Analysis by Qing-Ming Luo

• 摘要
  語音負擔是指某個語音單位（聲母、韻母、聲調、音節）在語音傳遞過程所承載的信息量，也叫音位功能負擔。教材語音負擔作為重要的語音量化指標，對漢語語音習得、語音要素的等級劃分以及語音教學內容的編排都會產生直接或間接的影響。本文利用新加坡小學華文教材語料庫結合數理統計原理對教材中包括聲母、韻母、聲調等語音構成要素進行語音負擔測算。結果顯示，漢語聲母、韻母和聲調的語音負擔不是平均的，總體上韻母的語音負擔最重，其次是聲母，聲調的語音負擔最輕。但從平均負擔量看，聲調的語音負擔卻最重；聲、韻、調內部子系統的語音負擔也存在較大差異。造成漢語語音負擔差異的原因主要是各語音構成要素在使用頻率上存在差異，頻率與語音負擔成正比。但頻率不是改變語音負擔的唯一因素，語音系統內部配置，語音單位元之間的對立或者互補關係也會直接影響二元對立的語音負擔。這些初步結論對漢語語音習得研究和教學研究都具有參考價值。

Phonological functional load refers to the amount of information carried by a phonetic unit (consonants, vowels, tones and syllables) in a phonological transmission process and is also called phoneme functional load. As an important phonological quantification indicator, textbook phonological load has a direct or indirect impact on Chinese phonetic acquisition, classification of phonetic elements, and the content arrangement of phonetics teaching. Applying statistical principles to the Singapore primary school Chinese textbook corpus, this paper seeks to compute the phonological load of the textbook phonetic constituent elements, including consonants, vowels, and tones. Results indicate that the phonological load of Chinese consonants, vowels and tones is uneven. Vowels in general have the highest phonological load, followed by consonants, with tones having the lowest phonological load. However, an examination from the point of view of average load reveals that tones command the highest phonological load, with a greater difference in the phonological load of the internal subsystems of consonants, vowels and tones. The main cause for the difference in Chinese phonological load lies in a difference in the usage frequency of various phonetic constituent elements, with frequency being proportional to phonological load. However, frequency is not the sole factor that changes phonological load. The internal configuration of phonetic systems and the opposing or complimentary relationship between phonetic units would also directly affect the phonological load of binary oppositions. These preliminary conclusions are of reference value to the research and pedagogy of phonetic acquisition of Chinese as a second language.

3. 以觀音靈籤作為華語閱讀教材及其教學設計  胡文菊、汪娟
   Developing a Reading Material Based on Kuan Yin Temple Oracle for Learners of Chinese as a Foreign Language by Wen-Chu Hu and Chuan Wang

• 摘要
  古代漢語蘊藏著豐富的中華文化寶藏，然而文言漢語常被一般人視為是死亡的語言，尤其在以華語為第二語言的教學領域裡，教材多以白話文為大宗，文言常常未得到太多的關注。對於此種現象學者們也提出了不同的看法。文言的遣詞用字洗鍊優美，適當的學習可以提升學習者的修辭知識、成語知識，更能帶領學習者一窺中華文化的精髓，領略漢語語言文化之美。我們選擇觀音靈籤作為中高級對外漢語閱讀教材的理由如下：第一，籤詩帶有謎樣的色彩，許多外籍人士對東方的求籤文化感到好奇，如果將這股好奇心結合華語學習，將是一莫大的學習助力。第二，觀音靈籤雖屬於文言漢語較為深奧難懂，但其中含藏了許多現代漢語常用的成語或習慣語，若熟悉這些詞語，學習者的語文程度將提升至另一個更高的階段。第三，一些研究顯示，學習者對於故事性的教材最感興趣。在每一首觀音靈籤的籤題背後都有一個歷史故事典故，因此學習起來饒富趣味，也能加深學習者的記憶與文化知識。此文首先探討文言漢語的教學策略，以及文言在華語文教學中應有的地位與重要性。其次本文分享如何將觀音靈籤改編成生活化華語學習教材，文中陳述此教材編輯時所依循的原則以及教材特色，並介紹此教材的內容編排，包括研究場域龍山寺簡介、入寺廟參拜的規矩、求籤的程序、籤詩體例與籤題背景故事等。文末更依據教學設計原理對此教材進行教學方法與教學活動的設計，希冀此研究能在華語文言教學與文化教學領域提供些許貢獻。

When people are perplexed with some questions in their life, one of the Asian/Chinese ways of approaching the problem is to seek guidance from Gods or Goddesses through temple divination. The oracle/poetry that one gets from the temple is the God/Goddess’ answer to his/her question. In Taiwan, Long Shan Temple is one of the must-visit attractions for many foreigners and Kuan Yin Oracle Board is used there. Temple divination is a mysterious ritual for many foreigners. Temple oracle therefore, we think, might become interesting and authentic reading material for Chinese language learners. Kuan Yin Temple Oracle is widely used in Chinese temples in different countries and it has a hundred poems written in classical Chinese. In this research, we firstly study the origin, the function and the structure of Kuan Yin Temple Oracle. We also review the literature on strategies of teaching classical text with the discussion of its role in teaching Chinese as a foreign language. We then list our guiding principles and methods of developing the Kuan Yin Oracle reading material tailored for foreign learners of Chinese. Finally, we try to design the teaching strategies for this special reading material, including several task-based learning activities. Suggestions for future research and practice are also provided.

4. 探討《新版實用視聽華語》與「華測八千詞」選用詞語之異同  石伊婷、陳浩然、李維潔、楊惠媚
   A Study of the Vocabulary Items Used in Practical “Audio-Visual Chinese” and “TOCFL Chinese 8,000 Vocabulary” by Francess Yi-Ting Shih, Howard Hao-Jan Chen, Wei-Jie Lee, and Hui-Mei Yang

• 摘要
  臺灣國家華語測驗推動工作委員會考試報告指出，無論報考華語文能力測驗（TOCFL）哪個級別的考生，多以《新版實用視聽華語》（以下簡稱《視華》）系列為主要教材。此表示教材內容影響著學生的學習狀況及TOCFL考試上的表現。有鑒於《視華》所涵蓋的詞語與TOCFL考試不同級別所需具備的詞語在過去並未經詳細探討，本研究藉由比較及分析兩者之間的詞語異同處得到了以下幾項發現：（1）兩者之間有3,693筆相同的詞語，有2,085筆《視華》詞語不在TOCFL詞表中，而有3,776筆TOCFL詞語未納入於《視華》中。（2）兩詞表的收詞原則不同，各具其選詞特色。（3）《視華》中具有較多臺灣特色的詞語。（4）TOCFL詞表「兒化」詞的數量高於《視華》。本研究進一步自《視華》未納入TOCFL詞表的2,085詞中，取得314筆高頻詞作為對TOCFL的建議詞表，也從TOCFL未收錄至《視華》的3,776詞中選取前三級的289筆詞作為對《視華》的建議詞語。期望本研究結果及建議可提供華語學習者、教師和教材與測驗編寫人員以及考試單位作為參考。

According to the report of The Steering Committee for the Test Of Proficiency-Huayu (SC-TOP), most of CSL (Chinese as a Second Language) learners in Taiwan taking The Test of Chinese as a Foreign Language (TOCFL) use ＂Practical Audio-Visual Chinese＂ series as the primary learning material. Thus, the content and vocabulary in the series have a clear impact on CSL learners’ learning and on their test performance. However, very few studies focused on comparing the vocabulary used in ＂Practical Audio-Visual Chinese＂ (PAVC wordlist) with ＂Chinese 8,000 Vocabulary＂ (TOCFL wordlist). In this study, we compared the vocabulary in the PAVC series of textbooks and TOCFL wordlist and found: (1) 3,693 words are shared by both PAVC and TOCFL wordlists, while 2,085 words in PAVC are not covered in TOCFL list. And TOCFL has 3,776 words that are not found in PAVC. (2) The criteria for selecting words in PAVC wordlist are different from those in TOCFL wordlist. (3) The PAVC contains more vocabulary items related to Taiwan features than TOCFL wordlist does. (4) The TOCFL wordlist contains a larger number of -er words than the PAVC does. Based on the results of comparison, we suggested that 314 high-frequency words in the PAVC could be included in TOCFL wordlist, and 289 words from the TOCFL wordlist could be incorporated into the PAVC. The findings of this study can serve as a useful reference for Chinese learners, teachers, textbook compilers, and language test agencies.

5. Effect of Home Language on the Chinese Lexical Ability of 6-year-old Singaporean Children by Puah Lynn Dee and Tan Chee Lay
   家庭言語環境對新加坡6歲華族兒童詞彙能力的影響  潘霖妮、陳志銳

• 摘要
  新加坡以英語為主要家庭用語的華族家庭有逐年上升的趨勢。為了更好地瞭解新加坡兒童的華語能力和語言使用情況，新加坡華文教研中心展開為期兩年的研究─《新加坡華族兒童語言環境及語言使用調查》。研究項取樣自新加坡學前中心，共有1,233名6歲兒童的父母參與問卷調查，當中372名兒童參加了圖片描述測試和認字測試。本文旨在探討家庭語言環境對新加坡6歲華族兒童詞彙能力的影響。本文選取了11名來自雙薪家庭、除幼稚園老師外無其他照顧者的兒童，並將它們分為三組─以華語為主要家庭用語、以華語及英語為主要家庭用語和以英語為主要家庭用語。兒童圖片描述測試的視頻或音頻，以CHAT模式轉寫，並以CLAN系統分析其詞頻、詞種、和平均句長。研究結果顯示，三組來自不同語言背景的11名新加坡華族6歲兒童的詞彙能力，在詞頻上沒有顯著區別，但是家庭用語對詞種和平均句長有顯著影響，功能詞的缺失，使得他們難以將所習得的詞彙組詞成句。

With English language dominating social use in Singapore, there is a rising trend of English being the dominant home language in local Chinese families. To better understand children’s Chinese language ability and their language exposure, the Singapore Centre for Chinese Language conducted a 2-year research project entitled ＂An Investigation of Singaporean Chinese Preschoolers’ Language Use & Exposure＂. A total of 1,233 parents of Kindergarten 2 children (aged 6) participated in a survey, and 372 children of these 1,233 parents subsequently participated in a picture description and a character recognition test. This paper aims to examine the effect of home language on the Chinese lexical ability of 6-year-old Singaporean Chinese children. Eleven children from dual income family were selected and divided into three home language groups: CHL (Chinese as main home language), CEHL (Chinese and English as main home languages) and EHL (English as main home language). Video- and audio-recordings were transcribed by using CHAT transcription. Word types, word tokens and mean length of utterance were analyzed by CLAN program. Two-way ANOVA analyses with home language and gender as independent variables were performed separately on word types, word tokens and mean length of utterance. The results reveal that lexical ability of the 11 6-year-old Chinese children has no significant difference across three home language groups in terms of the lexicon acquired. However, home language has significant effect on word type and mean length of utterance. The lack of function words causes them problems in putting words together.

目錄

Table of Contents

1. 兩岸華語初級階段教材之漢字用字量及互通性初探  信世昌、周昭廷
   Why Yes in Business Chinese Can Become No? by Shih-Chang Hsin, Chao-Ting Chou

• 摘要
  許多外籍華語學習者都曾分別在兩岸學過華語，或分別使用過兩岸的教材，但兩岸教材中的詞語差異必然造成華語學習者的銜接困難，在字彙方面的差異不只是繁簡字體的問題，也牽涉到兩岸教材中的用字量及互相涵蓋率的問題。本研究即以從零起點開始到完成初級階段（約一學年）的前兩本教材為限，以字彙編列問題為研究核心。我們挑選了台灣及中國大陸較普及的兩套系列型的初級華語教材，即台灣的《遠東生活華語》的第I及第II冊（後者包含AB上下兩冊）、及大陸的《新實用漢語課本》的第一冊及第二冊，我們分析了兩套教材的所有課文，統計各本教材用了多少個不同的單字、以及各單字出現的次數及頻率。基於統計結果，兩岸的初級階段教材在字集方面有明顯的差異，在兩岸分別學習華語的外國學生，其所學得的漢字頗有差別。若以此兩套教材為例，先在台灣學過的外國學生轉赴大陸唸中級華語時，會有24%的初級漢字從未學過；反之，先在大陸學過的外國學生轉來台灣唸中級華語時，更有高達近半數的初級漢字（49%）未曾學過。此外，兩岸不同的社會用語習慣亦影響了教材的漢字差異。其銜接與彌補的問題值得進一步關注。

Many L2 learners of Chinese are found to learn Chinese in both Taiwan and China. An obvious question arises in this context is the cross-strait interchangeability of vocabularies introduced in different textbooks. For instance, one of the difficulties lies in the traditional-simplified distinction of Chinese characters. More importantly, the cross-strait mismatch of the vocabulary quantity in different textbooks is another issue that is likely to cause a transitional challenge for these learners to go from one place to another through their learning process. The major research question of this paper is the quantity and the cross-strait interchangeability of the vocabularies in the textbooks used for the first two semesters (=one year) in beginner’s Chinese courses in both Taiwan and China. The representative textbooks used for beginners in Taiwan are Book I, Book IIA, and Book IIB of Far East Everyday Chinese. On the other hand, the counterparts in China are Book I and Book II of Practical Chinese Reader, New Edition. We carried out statistical analysis of the texts in these two textbooks, focusing on the frequency and the times of occurrences of the vocabularies. The results of the statistical analyses show significant qualitative and quantitative differences in the sets of characters introduced in these textbooks in Taiwan and Mainland China. Students who start out to study Chinese in Taiwan would face 24% unknown characters introduced in Practical Chinese Reader, New Edition when they transfer to Mainland China at the same level. By contrast, those who start out in Mainland China would find unfamiliar 49% of the characters in Far East Everyday Chinese when transferring to Taiwan. In addition, the social-linguistic disparity between Taiwan and Mainland China influences the selection of characters/vocabularies in textbooks. Thus, further research is needed to bridge the cross-strait qualitative/quantitative gap between the characters/vocabularies introduced in textbooks for beginner’s level.

2. 為什麼商務華語中的Yes可能是No？  陳麗宇、鄭錦全
   Malaysian Chinese Independent High School Students’ Cognitive Understanding of Take “Na” Action Verbs in Chinese: Examples from “V + N” Structures by Li-Yu Chen, Chin-Chuan Cheng

• 摘要
  在漢語區工作的外國商務人員，常會追問為什麼在商務英漢的交流或正式談判裡，Yes在會中或會後可能變成No。這種可能被解釋為欺騙的語言行為，其實可以有多項語用解釋。本文從語言的對話結構說明漢語的「是」並不完全對應英語的Yes，漢語的「是」在回答英語的問題時，是表示同意對方的說法，並不是回應英語的問話內容的肯定或否定。「是」還可以用來表達「我聽著，請繼續說」暫時自己不做決定的立場、遲疑的態度和「雖然」的轉折。「是」在有些場合也是用來彌補面子問題的回應詞，給予對方下臺的機會，並不是同意對方的說法。還有，過去十幾年，台灣出現沒有實質內容的「是」和「對」作為發語詞，有時還聽到說話人各處穿插這兩個詞語，用來彌補語流的空白。本文論述這類語言生活中的問題，並且從語用的觀點提出商務華語詞語教學建言。

Foreign business professionals working in Chinese-speaking regions often asked why in business English-Chinese conversations or formal negotiations, ＂yes＂ could turn into ＂no＂ right in the meeting or afterwards. Such a seemingly cheating language behavior in fact may have various explanations. This study explains in terms of dialog structure that the Chinese word ＂shi＂ does not correspond completely to English ＂yes＂. Chinese ＂shi＂ in answering English questions expresses the speaker’s agreement to what is said in the question and not to the positive or negative statement of the question sentence. ＂Shi＂ can also be used to indicate ＂I am listening, please go on＂ while undecided, hesitation, or concession. It is also used on some occasions as a response to save the face of the interlocutor and does not mean to agree with the person addressed. Moreover, in the past decade or so in Taiwan people used ＂shi＂ and ＂dui＂ as a non-sensical word in their conversation. They could be heard as speakers dotted the discourse with these words to fill the gap in the speech stream. This study discusses these pragmatic problems in language use. Some suggestions are raised for vocabulary teaching in business Chinese.

3. 華語否則類短語的篇章與人際功能探究  王萸芳、蔡碧華、許訓銘、胡凱閔
   A Corpus-based Study of the Textual and Interpersonal Functions of Mandarin Chinese (Yao)Buran, Yaobu, and Fouze by Yu-Fang Wang, Pi-Hua Tsai, Hsun-Ming Hsu, Kai-Ming Hu

• 摘要
  華語「不然」和「否則」在古代漢語都有「不是如此，不是這樣」的意思，後來發展出「如果不是這樣」的意思，表示前面敍述了一種情況，反過來的另一種情況就不是這樣了。「不然」也有一些變體，如「要不」、「要不然」和「再不然」。本研究旨在探究「不然」、「要不然」和「要不」以及「否則」出現於日常會話及電視政論兩種不同的口語語體的特色。研究採用Halliday（1994）語言的三個元功能為分析架構，即“表義／概念功能”，“人際功能”和“語篇功能”。研究發現，「不然」及其變體（特別是「要不然」）出現在日常會話比電視政論多，然「否則」卻較多出現於電視政論。此外，本研究也顯示：從「不然」、「要不然」和「要不」在篇章與人際層面的功能來看，因其常出現在條件因果句或假設句，其意義具有主觀性，甚至交互主觀性（Traugott and Dasher 2002），故較常出現於不正式的口語會話中。「不然」已從「不是如此」的意義漸漸延伸至有高度主觀性，如表推論，與交互主觀性，如表建議的功能。另外，「（要）不然」與「要不」在功能上雖有許多相似處，但此二詞在語法化的後半部階段有不同的發展，故二者亦有不同處。為了掌握這不同領域中的語義語用現象，我們借助Fauconnier and Turner（2002）所提出的融合理論（Blending Theory）來解釋「不然」與「否則」所銜接的句子其背後的心理空間現象，進而說明其語法化現象的過程，並以前人的研究及本研究結果為基礎，考察口語中的「（要）不然」、「要不」和「否則」中語法化的程度。研究發現，與「不然」、「要不然」和「要不」相較，「否則」主觀性強，交互主觀性卻不如它們強。

This study discusses the textual and pragmatic (interpersonal) functions of the near-synonyms (yao) buran, yaobu and fouze, which parallel to English ‘otherwise’, or ‘or’, connecting two clauses to express ‘or else; if not, then’. In particular, drawing on Halliday’s (1994) three-level model, viz. ideational (propositional), textual and interpersonal functions, the study looks into their uses in two different text types: daily casual conversations and TV political panel discussions. The data show that (yao) buran and yaobu tend to occur in casual conversations, while fouze, in political panel discussions. In addition, yaobu is used differently from buran in some ways, though both of them might come from yaoburan, which is composed of yao and buran. As a whole, this study suggests that (yao) buran and fouze, which originally had a referential meaning ‘not so’, are subjective in the sense that they involve the speaker’s assessment and evaluation of a proposition. However, the meanings of (yao) buran and yaobu are more subjective than that of fouze and they are even more intersubjective, which involves the speaker’s attention to the addressee as a participant in the speech event (Traugott and Dasher 2002). Finally, we account for the differences between fouze and buran by using Fauconnier and Turner’s Mental Space Blending Theory (2002).

4. 漢語教學中數目詞的探究  江惜美
   Chinese Numerals in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language by Hsi-Mei Chiang

• 摘要
  本文旨在探究數目字在漢語中的使用情形，以及出現的形態、應如何教學，以供華語教學者參考。漢字經歷代的演變，字形不一、讀音各異，在數目字上亦復如是。筆者在實地觀課時，發現教數目字，除了基本的一～十的寫法，其實還必須另外就「二、兩」、「一、壹」和「万、萬」等進行辨析，讓外籍生了解實際上應如何應用，因此，就漢語中數目字進行爬梳。首先，解釋各個數目字的不同寫法、讀音與其分類，然後，就教學上分辨這些字詞出現的情況，最後，說明漢語教學中教數目字可使用的方法，希望能透過對數目字形、音、義的了解，以及如何教學，提供華語教學者參考。我國有許多成語，與數目字息息相關，更具有特殊的文化意涵，本文將舉例說明，幫助華語教學者不只能對字義加以明確的解釋，更能進一步傳達數目字所代表的深意。數目字在今日生活中，通常與量詞結合，形成特定的用法，應用廣泛，值得華語教學者深入探究。

This paper aims to explore the application of the variation of numerals in Chinese and how these different forms of numerical words should be taught in Chinese as a second language. Chinese characters have evolved and developed over time from their earliest known pictographic forms, and to the versions used today. It holds true for Chinese characters for the numbers 1 to 10. More specifically, it is found that while teaching Chinese numbers corresponding to one to ten, teachers need to verify how ＂èr二 and liăng兩＂, ＂yī一 and yī壹＂, and ＂wàn万 and wàn萬＂ are used in context to help learners use them appropriately. In this paper, the numeral Chinese characters in terms of its forms and pronunciations followed by their frequencies of occurrences in teaching. Finally, methods are suggested for teachers while teaching these various written forms of Chinese numbers. It is hoped that thought the analyzing of the different characters, pronunciations, and meanings of Chinese numbers, teachers can have a better understanding regarding Chinese numeral characters. More importantly, many Chinese idioms are closely related to numbers which often connote special cultural meanings. This article will illustrate some of these number idioms as examples so that teachers will explain not only the meaning of words literally, but also the connotation of these numeral characters in idioms. Today, Chinese numeral characters, often in combination with measure words, carry special meaning and are used widely in various disciplines. There is a need for Chinese educators and researchers to explore further.

5. 法律華語教學之定位、定性和定向分析 陳寅清
   Teaching Legal Chinese for Second Language Learners: Analysis of Orientation, Quality and Direction by Yin-Ching Chen

• 摘要
  「法律華語」為「專業華語」的分支學科之一，性質屬於「特定目的之外語教學」（Languages for Specific Purposes），兼跨二語教學與法律專業之雙重領域，在學術研究與教學應用上皆尚有極大的發展空間。本文先就英美針對國際學生設計的法律英語課程及相關研究進行考察，再以國際專業外語教學的理論為基礎，針對海峽兩岸出版的法律華語教科書，以及商務華語教科書中涉及法律概念、法律實務，與法律文化的教材進行分析，以期呈顯法律華語教學的學科性質、定位和特徵，進而提供未來專業法律華語的教學及研究參考。

Legal Chinese is one of the courses of Chinese for Specific Purposes, which involves the two disciplines of teaching Chinese as a second language and legal education. Compared to legal English studies, the field of teaching legal Chinese still has much more to be explored. This paper first looks into relevant studies and theories of teaching legal English for international students; then based on the theories of teaching foreign language for specific purposes, the paper discusses the course materials of legal Chinese, including legal Chinese textbooks, as well as chapters involves legal knowledge in business Chinese textbooks. By clarifying the nature and characteristics of the emerging field of legal Chinese teaching, this pilot study hopes to provide useful references for future research and teaching of legal Chinese for second language learners.

6. 6. Self-repair Practices in a Chinese as a Second Language Classroom by Xiao-Fei Tang
      漢語作為第二語言課堂的話輪自我修復實踐 唐曉菲

• 摘要
  話輪修補在語言教學中的地位至關重要。基於會話分析理論，對話輪修補進行深入探討，有助於第二語言習得與教學法的進一步發展。儘管相關語言學研究通過分析北京或台灣普通話會話材料以解決話輪修補的問題，但甚少側重漢語作為第二語言學習者在漢語課堂會話中的自我修補機制。同時相關研究僅注重區分話輪修補的具體方法，並未詳細討論每種話輪修補機制的發啟與結果。因此本文旨在研究漢語課堂會話中二語學習者自我修補機制的實際現象，以期激勵漢語教師在實際教學中對二語學習者提供更為有效的幫助。本文採用會話分析的傳統方法，調查了兩種自我修補機制（即自我發啟自我修補與他人發啟自我修補）並驗證了相應的運用策略。本研究數據來自武漢大學公共語料庫，錄音時長共計147分鐘，涉及四名漢語教師與兩組班級間的課堂會話。本研究結果表明，除他人發啟修補機制外，上述兩種自我修補機制均出現在會話數據中，此外教師通過重複之前的提問來強調或間接指出學生話輪中的癥結所在。該結果證明，會話分析的方法適用於漢語作為第二語言課堂師生會話的研究。漢語課堂會話中表現出的自我修補的不同方式與對英語日常會話分析的以往研究結果亦大致相同，但仍存在自我特徵。從教學法意義言之，會話分析可以幫助漢語教師透過觀察學習者自我修補機制的運用，瞭解學習者的漢語掌握及運用能力。

The organization of repair plays the most significant role in language instruction. Insight into repair, informed by Conversation Analysis (CA), contributes to the development of second-language acquisition (SLA) and pedagogy. While a number of Chinese linguists have worked on the issue of repair with the Beijing and Taiwan Mandarin Chinese conversation data (e.g., Chui 1996; Tao 1995; Yang 2009), attention is rarely focused on Chinese as a second language (CSL) learners’ self-repair and the repair devices applied in Chinese institutional talk. Also, the initiation and the outcome of each repair were not properly discussed, as these studies only analyzed the classifications of detailed repair methods. Therefore, this study aims to look into the details of L2 learners’ self-repair devices in Mandarin Chinese classrooms, in order to inspire CSL teachers to reach out to L2 learners more effectively and successfully in an authentic teaching context. To do this, I investigated the two types of self-repair (i.e., self-initiated self-repair and other-initiated self-repair) and identified the appropriate repair practices in Chinese conversation. The analysis was based on 147-minutes of audio involving institutional conversation between four teachers and two CSL classes, drawn from a corpus recorded at Wuhan University, China. The results indicated two types of self-repair while the absence of other-initiation methods were noted in the data. Instead, the repetition of the original question was utilized by CSL teachers in order to emphasize and indirectly target the trouble source of the students’ turns. Therefore, I concluded that although the CA-informed repair mechanism is highly applicable to Chinese conversations, some particular features of self-repair in the CSL classroom cannot be ignored.

目錄

Table of Contents

1. 對外漢語學習詞典的語用信息研究  卜源、蘇新春
   The Study of Pragmatic Information in Chinese Learning Dictionaries by Yuan Bu, Xin-Chun Su

• 摘要
  語用學在最近幾十年發展快速，使得語用學原理在詞典編纂中的應用逐漸被詞典學家們所重視。外國學生也普遍期望能擁有一部實用的學習詞典，來告訴他們詞語使用的對象、場合、情景，蘊含的冒犯、禮貌程度，傳達的感情，使用的意圖，產生的效果等有用的語用知識。學習詞典如何吸收語用學成果，提供哪些語用信息及怎樣展示它們，從而積極引導學習者得體有效地理解和使用漢語，是當前對外漢語學習詞典編撰的一個重要議題。本文從語用信息的價值出發，介紹了漢語學習詞典中語用信息的具體內容及呈現方式，對比分析了三部對外漢語學習詞典，指出了它們在語用信息提供方面的一些優缺點，並對未來漢語學習詞典編纂中的語用信息構建問題提出了一些建議，希望對未來學習詞典的編纂帶來啓發。

Pragmatics, as a branch of linguistics, has been developing rapidly in recent decades. More and more lexicographers have done studies in pragmatics application to lexicography. Meanwhile, most of the foreign students who learn Chinese hope to own a useful dictionary, which can tell them adequate pragmatic knowledge, including the object factors, occasion, situation, context, offence information, politeness degree, emotion meaning, aim and effect of using a word. Therefore, as a reference book for learners, it is very important for a dictionary to provide pragmatic information more efficiently. This paper investigates and analyses the types and presentation methods of pragmatic information in Chinese learners’ dictionaries. Based on the analysis and comparison of the pragmatic information provided in three current dictionaries, suggestions are given to shed light on how to enrich and present pragmatic information in future dictionaries.

2. 馬來西亞獨中生認知「拿」類手部動作動詞的機制－以「V+N」動賓結構為例  陳秀君、高虹
   Malaysian Chinese Independent High School Students’ Cognitive Understanding of Take “Na” Action Verbs in Chinese: Examples from “V + N” Structures by Siew-Chien Chin, Helena Hong Gao

• 摘要
  馬來西亞的華語類似台灣的國語和新加坡的華語，都是在課堂上正規的普通話教育和課外社會中漢語多種方言的扶持下逐步發展起來的。這使得馬拉西亞的華語在很多方面更接近台灣的國語和新加坡的華語，而不是中國大陸的普通話。由於複雜的語言環境也使得馬來西亞華語使用者對有些詞彙的掌握和使用上出現了偏好，比如偏向使用某一個詞來表達一類類似的事件或一類相似的事物，而對其他同義或近義的詞卻很少使用等。根據我們的語感和觀察，發現馬來西亞的華語使用者就「拿」類手部動作動詞的應用上，存在「一物多拿」的現象。於是我們做了一項實證研究，假設「V（「拿」類手部動作動詞）+N」結構是藉由認知「拿」的機制，即建立在賓語屬性範疇化與「拿」的動作屬性之間的導向關係，以馬來西亞南部（簡稱南馬區）三所獨立中學（即以華語為教學媒介語的中學）為例，通過抽樣實證和量化數據來討論馬來西亞華語使用者「一物多拿」的現象，既而解釋華語使用者認知「拿」的機制如何啓動受事名詞及其物體知識、謂詞結構及其動作等相關的知識。

Similar to Taiwan and Singaporean Chinese, Malaysian Chinese has been developed by means of formal education at school as well as by taking Chinese dialects as a bridge to the lerning of the Chinese language, nonrmally known as Putonghua. Due to the similar complex language environments, Malaysian Chinese has become more similar to Singaporean and Taiwan Chinese than Putonghua spoken in Mainland China. Malaysian Chinese speakers are found to have a tendence in using certain lexical words more often than others. According to our experience and observation, the Malaysian Chinese speakers tend to use the verb Na ＂take＂ to describe many similar actions with different kinds of patient objects involved in the V + N structure. In this study we conducted an experiment based on our assumption that the structure of V (Na ＂take＂ action verbs) + N is a reflection of the Chinese speakers’ cognitive process of the the event structure of taking actions. That is, the semantic domains that the patient objects of the Na ＂take＂ action verb belong to are correlated with the action manners of the Na ＂take＂ actions that the verb describes. The participants of the study were from three Chinese independent high schools in the southern part of Malaysia. These schools provide secondary education in the Chinese language as the continuation of the primary education in Chinese national-type primary schools. The experiment results were analyzed and discussed to show how the Malaysian Chinese speakers had the cognitive mapping between the Na ＂take＂ action verbs and their different kinds of patient objects. Discussions were given about how the speakers’ cognitive understanding of the Na ＂take＂ actions would activate the speakers’ prior knowledge of the corresponding action verbs and the semantic knowledge of their patient objects, which altogether would build up the linguistic structure of the verbs.

3. 華語學習者句式使用情況分析  張莉萍
   The Usage of Some Sentence Patterns by L2 Chinese Learners: A Corpus-Based Study by Li-Ping Chang

• 摘要
  本研究藉由以任務為導向的電腦寫作考試語料來分析量化不同程度華語學習者的句式使用情況，目的是為了找出不同能力學習者的關鍵語言特徵，以作為評量時的參照指標。研究方法包括母語與二語語料庫之間的對比，以及偏誤分析（正誤用例比例）的方法，以找出學習者過度使用或少用哪些語言特徵、不同能力學習者的習得情況。對於是否為關鍵性特徵的判定則以Hawkins and Buttery（2010）對關鍵特徵的判定標準為主，以統計上的差異是否具有顯著性為依據。本文以「把字句、被字句、連字句」為例，觀察分析這些句式的使用頻率、偏誤率、次結構使用情況。這些資訊將有助於華語教學大綱的制定和教學材料的編寫，為學習、教學與評量設計提供科學的根據。

This study aims to explore the salient linguistic features of Chinese syntactic structures across the CEFR levels. It takes Ba sentences, Bei sentences, and Lian sentences as examples to examine their usage in terms of occurrence frequency, errors, and substructures produced by L2 Chinese learners. The research is based on corpus linguistics method, by comparing the sentences in a learner (L2) corpus and a native-speaker (L1) corpus. The L2 corpus which consists of more than 1.14 million Chinese words from novice proficiency to advanced learners’ texts is mainly from the computerbased writing Test of Chinese as a Foreign Language (TOCFL). The L1 corpus is the Academia Sinica balanced corpus. According to the statistical significance criterion proposed by Hawkins and Buttery (2010), these specific structures are used as the criterial features to classify different proficiency levels.

4. 現階段香港大學生普通話「命題說話」測試項中的偏誤分析  張翼
   The Analysis of Typical Errors Committed by Hong Kong University Students in the Putonghua Speaking Test by Yi Zhang

• 摘要
  自2001至2011年，港人的普通話水準有了普遍提升，主要體現在普通話語音方面，而內容方面，包括詞語選用及語法結構帶著濃郁的「港味」。本文以150名香港大學生所參加的普通話「命題說話」項測試的語料為依據，從詞法、句法以及語篇三個角度統計並篩選了排名前十的偏誤類型，嘗試分析港人學習普通話所產生的偏誤成因。分析表明，偏誤可能源於粵語及英語的遷移、港式書面語、本地中文教學三個方面。

Over the past ten years (2001-2011), Hong Kong people’s Putonghua proficiency, specifically their pronunciation, improved a great deal. However, their spoken Putonghua discourse, including lexical choice and grammatical structure, carried features of ＂Hong Kong-style＂. On the basis of the corpus-based data analysis of 150 Hong Kong University students who took the Putonghua speaking test, this paper discusses the top ten error types in spoken Putonghua committed by students in morphology, syntax as well as discourse. The errors and the causes are analyzed. The most common factors of the errors originate from the negative transfer of Cantonese and English, the ＂Hong Kong-style＂ Chinese, and the effect of local Chinese education.

5. Teaching Observed but also Participatory Chinese Culture: Some Pedagogical Issues and Implications by Jason D. Hendryx
   觀察並且參與中國文化之教學：部分教學問題與啟示  韓森

• 摘要
  中國文化教學無疑是每一個華語教師教學職責的一個重要方向。突顯出從華語發展且目前有在施行的文化是華語學生的一座附加的橋樑，以提高他們對母語為華語的人的理解，並更好地認識現在被稱為華語的一些語言上的細微差別。然而，在大部分華語課本和教材中，或非華裔學生的華語課堂上，中國文化僅僅從華人觀察到的角度來呈現，對於訪問或居住在臺灣、大陸或其他華語地區的外國人將體驗到的中國文化現況有些方向偏離。引用已經出版的作品（請參見Hodge & Louie 1998，McDonald，2011）加上筆者過去20年來斷斷續續在大陸和臺灣的生活經驗，觀察的中國文化教學可以而且應該通過參與的中國文化教學來發揚的這個論點將被提出。筆者希望藉由觀察到並且參與中國文化的教學這種情況下，華語教師和非華裔的語言學習者，能從中國文化可以呈現並學習的附加渠道中受益。

Teaching Chinese culture is certainly an essential aspect of every Chinese language teachers’ instructional responsibilities. To highlight the culture(s) from which Chinese language developed and currently operates in is an additional bridge for students of the language to enhance their understandings of the peoples who communicate primarily in Chinese. Furthermore, cultural instruction also allows students to better appreciate some of the nuances of the languages now called Chinese. However, the manner in which Chinese culture is presented in the majority of Chinese language textbooks, teaching materials, and oftentimes Chinese language classrooms for non- Chinese learners is done so only from the observed Chinese perspective. Such approaches are misaligned with the Chinese cultural realities foreigners visiting or living in Taiwan, China, or other Chinese speaking areas will experience and participate in. Drawing on published works (See Hodge and Louie 1998; McDonald 2011), then complementing them with the author’s experiences living in China and Taiwan off and on across the last 20 years, the argument will be made that teaching observed Chinese culture can and should be complimented by the teaching of participatory Chinese culture as well. It is hoped that by making such a case for the teaching of observed as well as participatory Chinese culture Chinese teachers and non-Chinese language learners can benefit from the additional avenues Chinese culture can be presented in and learned.

目錄

Table of Contents

1. 學語言學到了什麼？－從語言的多面向樣貌探討語言教學的新路徑 陳振宇
   What do We Acquire when We Acquire a Language? Implications for Language Learning and Coaching by Jenn-Yeu Chen

• 摘要
  我們拿握紙杯子和陶瓷杯子的方式不會相同，這是因為兩者的樣貌與構造不同的緣故。如果把語言想像成一種物體，那麼我們認為這是一個什麼樣的物體，也會影響我們如何攫取掌握它。換句話說，我們問如何習得語言之前，要先思考語言是什麼。現有的語言習得理論都有其假定的語言樣貌。本文從八個面向探討語言的樣貌，及其對應的語言習得理論。然後嘗試加以歸納整合出一個比較合乎人類生態的語言習得觀點，本文借用Atkinson（2011）提出的名稱，稱之為社會認知取向。這個觀點對語言教學提出了新的路徑，可供教學者思考與研究新的教學方案。

The way we grasp a paper cup necessarily differ from the way we grasp a mug or a glass. This is because the two types of container have different shapes and structures and these affect how we handle them. If we metaphorically think of a language as an object with a predictable shape and structure, we must handle (use) different languages differently. In terms of language acquisition or learning, this means that we need to determine ahead of time what we think a language is before exploring how to acquire it. Theories of second language acquisition all presume a specific answer of what a language is. In this paper, I discuss eight different facets of a language and their related SLA theories. I also try to synthesize these different views and propose an ecological approach to SLA, which I call the Sociocognitive Approach, borrowing from Atkinson’s (2011) recent proposal. The sociocognitive approach offers a possibility for designing new programs of second language learning.

2. 漢語成語及典故知識庫在語文學習中的應用  俞士汶、羅鳳珠、朱學鋒、王雷、常寶寶、砂岡和子、姜柄圭
   The Application of Chinese Idiom and Allusion Knowledge Base in Learning Chinese by Shi-Wen Yu, Feng-Ju Lo, Xue-Feng Zhu, Lei Wang, Bao-Bao Chang, Kazuko Sunaoka, Byeong-Kwu Kang

• 摘要
  無論人的語言能力的提升，還是機器的語言能力的提升都需要語言知識庫的支援。北京大學計算語言學研究所研製的漢語成語知識庫和元智大學羅鳳珠建置的詩詞曲典故知識庫，都是為提升人和機器的語言能力服務的。在知識庫達到一定規模之後，希望能應用知識庫的特性，引用「一詞泛讀」、「觸類旁通」及「延伸學習」的理念，設計學習功能，以應用在語文學習上。本文延續〈分階多語成語典故知識庫教學設計〉一文，更深入的以漢語成語及典故知識庫為例，詳細地介紹內容、建構理念和發展歷程。以及成語知識庫同典故知識庫連接之後，如何使語言學習提升到文學作品學習的層次，並使兩個知識庫相得益彰。

In order to enhance the language ability of both humans and computers, we need the support of language knowledge bases. The Chinese Idiom Knowledge Base(CIKB) developed by the Institute of Computational Linguistics at Peking University and the Allusion Knowledge Base of Chinese Poetry built by Lo Fengju at Yuan Ze University are both constructed for this purpose. With a corpus built to a certain scale and the aid from a language knowledge base, we hope to introduce the concepts of ＂extensive reading from a single word＂, ＂grasping the whole category with a typical example＂ and ＂extended learning＂ and design frameworks applicable to Chinese learning. As a sequel to ＂A Phase-based Design of Multilingual Idiom-allusion Knowledge Base for Teaching＂, this paper introduces in detail the content, construction ideas and development process of the two knowledge bases by taking CIKB and the allusion knowledge base as further examples. The connection of CIKB with the allusion knowledge base makes the two knowledge bases complement each other and improve Chinese language learning to the level of literature learning.

3. 華裔學習者跨文化族群認同及其傳承語習得研究  王建勤
   Chinese Heritage Language Learners’ Transcultural Ethnic Identity and Heritage Language Acquisition by Jian-Qin Wang

• 摘要
  本研究擬從兩個方面來探討華裔學習者的族群認同與習得問題：一是華裔學習者如何面對雙向族群認同，採取哪些認同策略；二是華裔學習者不同認同傾向和策略對其傳承語習得產生哪些影響。研究結果表明，華裔學習者由於所在國的社會文化環境及其傳承語教育的政策不同而採取了三種不同類型的認同策略，即「適應策略」、「保留策略」和「同化策略」；此外，華裔學習者雙向族群認同策略對其傳承語的習得與保持的影響是潛在的、間接的，高認同不一定帶來傳承語習得的高水準。針對華裔學習者雙向族群認同的兩難選擇問題，本文提出了「跨文化族群認同」的第三選擇，並針對華裔學習者傳承語習得的現狀提出了可供參考的教學建議。

This paper explores Chinese heritage language learners’ ethnic identity and heritage language acquisition from two aspects. One is that how the learners deal with the bidirectional ethnic identity and what strategies they adopt in face of the dilemma. Another is that how the learners’ strategies of the ethnic identity influence their heritage language acquisition. The results show that the learners adopt different sorts of strategies, e.g. adaptive strategy, preserved strategy, and assimilative strategy. In addition, the learners’ strategies have potential and indirect influences on their heritage language acquisition and maintenance. Therefore, the learner’s high level ethnic identity does not necessarily lead to high level proficiency of his heritage language. Hence, to solve the dilemma of the learners’ bidirectional ethnic identity, this paper proposes the third choice for the learners, i.e. ＂transcultural ethnic identity＂. Moreover, some teaching suggestions for Chinese heritage language learners’ heritage language acquisition are provided.

4. 華語學習者電腦寫作考試中「把」字後賓語間接回指的情形  陳怡靜、廖才儀
   The Use of BA-NP as an Indirect Anaphor in TOCFL Written Tests by Yi-Jing Chen and Tsai-Yi Liao

• 摘要
  「把」字句用來表徵有界事件中某物如何受到影響，以致發生變化後進入另一種狀態。變化發生前「把」所標記的物體已經存在，「把」字後賓語通常為定指，為已知訊息。在華語學習者電腦寫作考試語料庫中發現不少華語學習者在寫作測驗中將首次出現的事物視為已知訊息，用「把」字標記。本文發現這些「把」字後賓語指涉的對象需要透過前文某個指涉對象來解讀，這種現象稱為間接回指。本文將藉認知參照點原則與認知轉喻闡釋學習者使用「把」字句間接回指，銜接上下文時的心智過程。

Ba-construction is used to express how an object in a bounded event is affected, then undergoing a change of state. Before the change of state, the NP marked by ba has already existed in the discourse and its reference is usually definite, known as presupposed information. In TOCFL learner corpus, there are many CSL learners who mark a newly-introduced referent as old information with ba in their writing test. We found that the reference of the ba-NP could be interpreted through a certain referent which appears in the preceding discourse. The coherence in their writing is achieved by the indirect anaphora. This paper is expected to find out how the ba-NP is used as an indirect anaphor in terms of cognitive reference point (Langacker 1993, 2000, 2008) and cognitive metonymy (Lakoff and Johnson 1980).

5. 從大學校園飲食看華語教材的飲食用語安排  巫宜靜
   A Pedagogical Evaluation of Dining Terms in Chinese Teaching Materials on University Campus by Yi-Ching Wu

• 摘要
  為改善華語教材並協助學習者，本文探究來台就讀的外籍學習者，在大學校園內飲食時所需的用語，以及可能的語言困難點。以銘傳大學桃園龜山校區內的二十家餐飲店為觀察標的，觀察外籍學習者在校園內用餐時可能所需的飲食用語，以及對外華語教材中對飲食情境和用語的安排，並且以「華語八千詞」詞表為詞彙等級區分的參考，分析飲食用語的詞彙等級。本文發現校園內用餐可能的六類飲食用語中，一般華語教材多含第一類菜單用語、第三類買賣雙方的溝通用語、第四類顧客與服務員之間的問答語、第六類對餐飲的評論語，而較少第二類店家廣告用語，及第四類用餐環境的引導語類，且一般華語教材裡的第一類菜單用語較為簡單。各類用語的詞彙，均含不少流利級詞彙，以及未出現在「華語八千詞」詞表中的詞彙。在所蒐集到432個菜單項目詞彙中，約有347個（80.3%）未列於該詞表中。對於華語能力未達流利級以上的學生，易產生語言理解的困難。兩岸語言差異也呈現在飲食用語中，也可能造成語言難點。菜單中食品名稱無法直接得知成品、食材成分，或者不當的英文翻譯，都可能使外籍學習者無法理解而產生困難。本文建議華語教學應加強目前教材中對飲食用語不足之處，且應針對飲食用語編纂教材或學材，以協助外籍學習者順利達成飲食的任務。

To improve Chinese teaching materials and help learners, this study probes into the dining terms used on university campuses and the potential linguistic difficulties they cause for foreign learners of Chinese. The dining terms were collected from the twenty restaurants located on the Taoyuan campus of Ming Chuan University. The lexical levels of the words defined as dining terms were analyzed based on the List of 8,000 Chinese Words. This study shows that of the six types of ding terms, Types (a) menu terms, (c) communicational expressions between buyers and sellers, (e) dialogues involving customers and restaurant wait staff, and (f) comments from customers about the food and beverages they purchase and consume, are typically included in Chinese teaching materials, but Types (b) advertisement terms and (d) terms related to environmental guidance are not. Type (a) menu terms in general Chinese teaching materials are simpler than those used on the campus. Each of the six types comprises numerous advanced TOCFL Level 5 words and those that were not included in the List of 8,000 Chinese Words. Of the 432 words collected from the menu items, 347 (80.3%) were not included in the word list. This deficiency may cause language comprehension difficulties for students who are not at or above Level 5. The dining terms also demonstrated linguistic differences between Taiwan and Mainland China, which may cause language difficulties. Reading comprehension problems may arise when the name of the food and beverage on a menu shows no direct relation to ingredients. Learners may also be confused by improper English translations of Chinese terms and menu items and encounter comprehension difficulties when examining the menu contents. The flaws in dining terms used in Chinese language teaching materials should be ameliorated, and additional teaching and self-learning materials targeted dining terms should be developed, allowing foreign learners to accomplish food-related tasks.

6. Corpus-driven Creation of a Reliable Learner’s Vocabulary forClassical Chinese by Tilman Schalmey
   憑藉語料分析制定古代漢語「可靠」詞彙表  夏逖曼

• 摘要
  古代漢語教材大多沒有現代漢語教材、拉丁文教材以及其他古代語言教材的水平與先進的教學法。此外，從統計方面觀察時，使用現有的古代漢語教材的學生要學習使用的詞彙似乎並非以實踐為導向。這是因為詞彙選擇以課文的選擇為主，並不以生詞的使用為主。同時，課本詞彙數量之大、解釋之繁瑣會令人望而止步。筆者計畫憑藉自己的教學經驗，以現代、高效、可靠、便於掌握的詞彙和語法為框架，為外國漢學學生編寫一本新的古代漢語教材。為此，有必要定義分析古代漢語字符頻率的框架。鑒於上述目的，中文「古代漢語」一詞定義為春秋戰國到漢末之書面語。此論文說明編寫這個時期的代表性的語料的標準，並討論語料內容與篇幅。Michael Loewe先生於1993年出版的參考書目Early Chinese Texts中介紹的六十四個文本可以作為一個適合漢學學生的代表性語料 。此語料總共約四百萬字，用字一萬兩千五百四十六。通過運行 PERL 字符頻率分析腳本可以發現：認識六百個常用字的人大約能夠看懂「古代漢語」的百分之八十。也就是說，學 一千一百零五個字能使學生讀懂先秦兩漢文章的百分之九十。論文結尾處附有語料原文列表以及字符頻率分析字數表。

The quality of teaching materials for Classical Chinese often lags behind that of teaching materials available for modern vernacular Chinese, more widely studied ancient languages like Latin and also behind current developments in didactics. At the same time, the learner’s vocabulary of a textbook can be a deterrent because of its sheer volume and the way it is presented and organized. The author plans to compile a new Classical Chinese textbook for students of Sinology, based on his teaching experiences and an efficient, reliable learner’s vocabulary as well as a grammatical analysis presented in a modern, student-friendly way. To do so, it is necessary first to define the framework for a character frequency analysis of the classical Chinese language. The term Classical Chinese is defined for this purpose as the written language of the time from the Spring and Autumn period until the end of the Han dynasty. The criteria used to compile a representative corpus for this period are summarized, discussing the considerations about content and size of the corpus. The 64 texts presented in Michael Loewe’s Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide (1993) are found to be a representative corpus for students of Sinology. The corpus thus created consists of a total of around four million characters, containing 12,546 tokens. By running a PERL script character frequency analysis of the corpus, it is found that by learning only the 600 most common characters, a ＂Classical Chinese＂ text coverage of 80 % can be reached. A number of 1,105 most common characters would make for an adequate working vocabulary, enabling students to read 90 % of an Ancient Chinese text. The tables contain a list of the corpus source texts and the detailed word counts of the frequency analysis itself.

目錄

Table of Contents

1. 分階多語成語典故知識庫教學設計 羅鳳珠、砂岡和子、姜柄圭、俞士汶、王雷、常寶寶
   A Phase-based Design of Multilingual Idiom-allusion Knowledge Base for Teaching by Feng-Ju Lo, Kazuko Sunaok, Byeong-Kwu Kang, Shi-Wen Yu, Lei Wang, and Bao-Bao Chang

• 摘要
  成語與典故是非常特殊的漢語語言形式，具有生動簡潔、形象鮮明、寓意深刻的特點。成語與典故的語義豐富，典雅蘊藉，蘊藏著中國幾千年的歷史文化與人文發展脈絡，影響及於鄰國，是亞洲漢字文化圈珍貴的文化遺產。本文旨在探討如何建構一個內容完整豐富的成語典故知識庫，再以分階多語的方式，期以達到：一、透過所建置的成語知識內容，理解成語的含義與用法；二、透過成語與典故對應的機制，以成語學習為立基點，兼及學會與該成語相關的典故；三、透過英、日、韓語的成語翻譯，降低母語非漢語的學習者學習的門檻；四、從成語典故之出處內容，將學習深入到中國歷史文化的深層脈絡；五、從例句學習成語與典故之使用方法，並擴充到文學典籍閱讀及歷史文化探索等教學策略。

Idioms and allusions are unique in Chinese language for their vividness, conciseness and enlightening morals. Profound in meaning, elegant, and they thread through Chinese history culture and humanity development for thousands of years, which has exerted an influence throughout neighboring countries and serves as a precious legacy around the Asian character-based cultural circle. This paper aims to explore the methods of constructing a complete knowledge base for Chinese idioms and allusions on a phase and multilingual basis. Our goal is: 1. to understand the meaning and usage of the idiom with a full knowledge of the idiom obtained from the base; 2. to learn allusions related to a certain idiom on the basis of mapping the idiom and the allusions; 3. to help non-native Chinese learners with English, Korean and Japanese translations; 4. to further study Chinese history and culture with the source information of idioms and allusions; 5. to expand the scope to pedagogic methodology for literary classics reading and the study of history and culture by usage examples of idioms and allusions.

2. 漢越成語對比分析及其教學建議  王季香、阮黃英
   A Contrastive Analysis of Chinese and Vietnamese Idioms and Teaching Suggestions by Chi-Hsiang Wang, Hoang-Anh Nguyen

• 摘要
  越南的成語有些是原生的，也有些是從漢語引進的。越語中源於漢語的成語語源雖一致，但隨著語言與社會現實交際需要的語境互動、共構，語形、語義和語用會跟著移轉或重構，或借形賦義、借形衍義、音義化形等，遂產生了語意範圍的變化、褒貶色彩的轉化或詞語的重構等。目前學界關於漢語成語和越南的漢源成語的對比研究不少，如語義對比、結構對比、文化對比等，但對比較結果的解釋及將之運用於越南漢語教學的研究還有待挖掘。成語教學可以激發學生瞭解歷史的熱情，並提高閱讀寫作能力，然因各民族文化背景的殊異，學習者容易產生偏誤。本文針對越南漢源成語中詞頻較高的語料，一方面通過對比分析的角度，探析漢語和越語成語在跨文化交流時的特點及差異，一方面經由調查蒐集了解學生語用偏誤的情形，並希望能藉由研析的結果，可運用在越南華語文他教材編輯上，同時提出相關的華語教學建議。

Some Vietnamese idioms are of Vietnamese origin, but some others came from Chinese. Those originated from Chinese might have changed in form and meaning because of requirements in social communication. Their forms, vivid images, and range of meanings reflect the diverse cultures. Due to the structural differences in the two languages, their forms of idioms may vary. For example, Chinese idioms have been called ”the living fossil” for their profound historical and cultural implications and the unique, fixed forms of phrases. At present, there are certain contrastive studies in the idioms between Vietnamese and Chinese in the academic circles, such as semantic, structural, and culture contrasts. However, our study takes a further aim at exploring how to interpret and apply those findings to Chinese pedagogy. Idiom teaching can stimulate students’ enthusiasm in understanding history and improve their reading/writing abilities. On the other hand, influenced by their own cultural backgrounds, foreign learners are more likely to make errors while learning idioms. Based on the perspective of contrastive analysis, we collected and analyzed those errors frequently made by students. We thereby propose suggestions on the teaching materials editing and pedagogical application.

3. 中國大陸對外漢語寫作教學研究的回顧與展望  郭利霞
   Composition in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language on Mainland China: A Review and Future Prospects by Li-Xia Guo

• 摘要
  隨著2007年初中級HSK加人作文測試，對外漢語寫作教學和研究的重要性日益凸顯。相關研究持續升溫，且不斷向縱深發展，寫作教學正在成為對外漢語教學研究的熱點之一。本文對中國大陸對外漢語寫作教學的研究現狀、教材建設及教學法進行了回顧，總結了成績和不足，並提出了今後可開展或深入的若干研究課題。

Writing Test has been a part of HSK at Elementary and Intermediate Levels since 2007. As a result, teaching and studying of TCASL (Teaching Chinese as a Second Language) writing appeared more and more important. TCASL studies have been focusing on problems corelated with writing in the recent years. This paper reviews the TCASL writing teaching and study in following aspects: textbook compiling, current studies and studies in pedagogics. More researches are needed to address these questions.

4. 漢日漢字的關聯性與日本學習者的漢語詞彙再認  滕小春
   The Association between Characters in the Chinese and Japanese Languages, and Japanese Learners’ Acquisition of Chinese Words by Xiao-Chun Teng

• 摘要
  與母語相似的第二語言習得的難易問題一直是一個時有爭論的話題。其中有與母語相似的目的語容易習得的觀點，同時也有認為與母語相似的目的語有時反而更加難習得的觀點。兩種不同觀點的產生可能是因為語言之間的相似性表現在很多複雜而不同的方面所引起的。相似性所表現的具體方面不同或許會決定對二語習得所產生影響的正負性，或許因此而造成了學者的爭論。那麼我們在沒有完全確認目的語與母語之間的相似性對某語言習得的具體方面影響如何時，就需要對所要考察的該具體方面的習得情況進行實證後才可做出結論。日語和漢語都有漢字，它們之間具有很多關聯性，所以我們說到漢日兩種語言之間的相似性其實大多數情況下是指它們之間的這種關聯性。那麼該關聯性對日本學習者的漢語習得有沒有正面的影響呢？本文不是考察日語整體習得上的影響，而是對其中的學習者在漢語詞彙的習得上的影響。而本文又將詞彙習得上的影響更加具體到詞彙再認方面的影響。通過對日本大學一年級學生的漢語期末考試的解答進行了具體調查，然後從認知心理的角度做了深入的分析。我們的結論是漢日兩種語言漢字之間的關聯性越強，對學習者的詞彙再認就越有幫助。另外，本文也對日本學習者在漢語詞彙再認時容易犯錯的幾種典型的認知機制進行了考察。

Is it easy to learn a second language which is similar to one’s native language? The controversy surrounding this theme is probably attributable to the specific similarities and differences embodied in the languages. It is probable that the effects depend on which parts of the languages are being discussed. In any case, it is necessary to do an empirical investigation on learners’ attitudes regarding similarities between a foreign language and their own. The similarity between Chinese and Japanese is mainly embodied in the fact that both languages use logographic characters. Although Chinese characters are not completely the same as those in Japanese, the cognitive associations are often close. This study investigated if these associations help Japanese learners (college freshmen in this study) recognize Chinese vocabulary. Through two surveys, this study empirically found that associations between characters in the two languages positively affect the learners in recognizing as well as understanding vocabulary. The study also analyzed cognitive reasons why Japanese learners cannot recognize some Chinese words.

5. The Efficacy of Teacher Development in a STARTALK Residential Program by Miao-Fen Tseng
   星談中文師資培訓計畫的效能 曾妙芬

• 摘要
  此篇論文旨在研究美國維吉尼亞大學星談中文教師項目的有效性。維大自2008年開始至今，每年皆獲得美國政府國會經費，開設研究所中文教學法3至5學分的課程，招收全國15位中文教師，進行為期三周的密集強化訓練。培訓方式採用課堂與網上教學兩種模式，理論與課堂實踐並重，內容包括第二語言習得與中文教學法，諸如如何融人五大外語教學目標，設計以學生為中心的課程，選用文化豐富的真實語料，運用電腦科技輔助教學，進行表現式的評量方式等等。此課程採用各種不同的評量方式，針對每位教師的個別差異，進行追蹤輔導，從正確教學觀念的培養到教學行為的改變，皆兼顧團體及個別教師的需要。其評量方式包括項參加項目前後的自我評量檢測表，網上討論，網上意見調查，教學實習表現，每天自我評量與總評量，課堂參與作業的完成，網上專業教學檔案的建立。此篇論文研究方法質與量兩者並重，側重教師參與此課程計畫前後在教學觀念及課堂實踐應用方面的差異性。研究顯示，教師於培訓課程完成時，在教學理念課堂實踐方面都有顯著的成長與進步。

This paper investigates the efficacy of teacher development through a teacher residential program funded by the US federal STARTALK grant since 2008. It documents the professional development of fifteen Chinese language teachers in a three-week intensive training program. The program integrates a balance of theories and practice into the curriculum through a well-structured and supervised practicum. Upon the completion of the three- or five-credit graduate course, teachers are able to keep abreast of new developments in second language acquisition theories and practice in general, particularly in Chinese language acquisition and pedagogy. Through the program practicum, they also create standards-based curricula and materials, deliver effective instruction, and implement authentic performance-based assessment and instructional technology in a learner-centered, highly communicative and interactive environment. The program features both face-to-face instruction and online training. A variety of assessments are employed to keep track of the achievements of curricular and instructional goals and the participants’ progress toward newly gained knowledge and skills. The data collected from the pre-program and post-program self-assessment checklists reveal that participants showed noticeable progress in required skills and knowledge needed for professional enhancement. The study concludes that by the end of the program, the teacher participants had experienced significant conceptual and behavioral change through teaching Chinese as a foreign language.